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of these cites the theory that the “Five Great Ruins” served as “major regional bases,” but they stop at calling the Royal Roads a “domestic circulation route,” never going beyond the framework of Cambodian national history (Ishizawa 2001: 72, Ishizawa 2009: 218). Ishizawa’s latest book, however, builds upon the findings of later research to handle the domain much broader than the realm of the “Kingdom of Angkor,” making an explicit effort to locate the Royal Roads in the “routes for circulation of goods prior to the Age of Exploration” (Ishizawa and Miwa 2014: 78–79). One could say that this book marks a new development in research of Angkorian history.3. Ruins in the ForestOne last thing I would like to mention is that, as seen in the book’s title, the “Five Great Ruins” and the “Royal Roads” are now mostly covered in forest, making investigation extremely difficult. Even Beng Maelea, which of all the “Five Great Ruins” is closest to Siam Reap, was difficult to access. When Miwa attempted a field investigation on November 15th, 1999, he wrote that he “was impeded by muddy, swamped roads, and, not knowing the condition of the road ahead, was forced to turn back out of concern for safety.” When he told local Cambodians that he was heading there, they were “surprised and concerned.” There is still the possibility that landmines remain in and around the ruins (Ishizawa and Miwa 2014: 224–226). When the Sophia University Angkor International Mission visited Koh Ker in December of 2000, they reported that the “seven stepped pyramid Prang was overgrown with tropical plants, and viewed from a helicopter it looked like a small mountain of trees and shrubs. We asked locals to clear away some of the shrubs and take down trees, and we climbed to the top” (Ishizawa and Miwa 2014: 135). There are likely many more ruins hidden in the trees, but the land mines make further examination impossible (Ishizawa and Miwa 2014: 220, 223). The central hall of Preah Khan is “currently collapsed into a mountain of rubble” (Ishizawa and Miwa 2014: 158). When Ishizawa visited Banteay Chhmar by helicopter in November of 1993, he wrote that “Looking down at the ruins from above, I first of all noticed the thick, overgrown forest, but upon looking closer I could see a moat and corridors. Since the site had been abandoned for about 30 years, the thick jungle prevented me from entering the premises of the main shrine. After asking people from the village to cut down some trees, I was able to perform an investigation” (Ishizawa and Miwa 2014: 192). The 2000 Mission also reported that “The hall of the main temple, 25 meters tall, had completely crumbled. The stones had been piled in heaps everywhere. Both the barely standing high tower and the hall were hidden in the shadow of the huge trees that flanked them... In order to enter the main temple we hired 10 villagers to cut through the overgrowth, but we were furiously attacked by wasps, red ants, ticks, and mosquitos during the expedition” (Ishizawa and Miwa 2014: 195–196). When Miwa visited Sambor Prei Kuk on September 26, 1999, trees were entwined with the bricks of the ruins, making outward observation difficult (Ishizawa and Miwa 2014: 217).According to Miwa, a pre-civil war photograph of Koh Ker shows “a complete pyramid temple with no trees at all.” Thus, we can assume that the ruins became covered in forest growth between the time of the civil war and the end of the 20th century (Ishizawa and Miwa 2014: 221). They fell into disrepair during the civil war when there was no one to tend to them. The effects of the civil war lasted for some time, and surveys of the area did not begin anew until 2000 due to concerns about safety and landmines. At the same time, management of the sites was effectively impossible, leading to great damage from looting. (Ishizawa and Miwa 2014: 158, 192, 195, 228, 230–232, 233, 235). The cause of these problems is the fact that, whether judging from Cambodia or Thailand, the area is in a remote region far removed from population centers.004MODERN ASIAN STUDIES REVIEW Vol.6

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